Part II

The Development of Indulgences in the High Middle Ages (11th–15th Centuries)

Introduction

By the close of the first millennium, the essential theological foundations of indulgences had already taken shape. The Church distinguished between the forgiveness of sin and the temporal consequences that remained after absolution. Bishops exercised pastoral authority in commuting canonical penances, the Communion of Saints was widely accepted, and the faithful believed in the spiritual value of prayer, sacrifice, and works of mercy.

The period between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries transformed these foundational principles into the formal doctrine of indulgences. It was an era of profound religious enthusiasm marked by pilgrimages, crusades, cathedral building, the rise of universities, and the flowering of Scholastic theology. During these centuries, indulgences became a regular feature of Catholic life, received clearer theological definition, and unfortunately also became vulnerable to misunderstanding and abuse.

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Europe in the High Middle Ages

The High Middle Ages (c. 1050–1300) witnessed extraordinary religious vitality.

Across Europe:

• magnificent cathedrals rose above medieval cities,
• monasteries flourished,
• pilgrimage routes attracted countless travelers,
• universities emerged as centers of learning,
• and devotion to the Eucharist, the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the saints deepened.

The Church increasingly sought ways to encourage acts of faith, charity, and penance. Indulgences became one of the pastoral means of fostering conversion and spiritual renewal.

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The First Crusade and the First Plenary Indulgence

One of the most significant developments occurred in 1095, when Pope Urban II preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont.

Responding to appeals from Eastern Christians and concerns for access to the holy places, Urban II called upon Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Those who sincerely participated for religious motives were promised the remission of the canonical penances they still owed.

This grant is generally regarded as the first explicit plenary indulgence in Church history.

The Pope did not teach that participation in the Crusade automatically guaranteed salvation or forgave sins without repentance. Rather, those who were properly disposed and had confessed their sins could receive the full remission of the temporal punishment associated with those forgiven sins.

This marked an important development: indulgences were no longer limited to reductions of specific canonical penances but could encompass the entire temporal punishment due to forgiven sin.

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Pilgrimage as an Act of Penance

Long before the Crusades, Christians had undertaken pilgrimages to sacred places as acts of devotion and penance.

Popular destinations included:

• Jerusalem,
• Rome,
• Santiago de Compostela,
• Canterbury,
• Cologne,
• Assisi,
• and numerous local shrines.

Pilgrimages often involved months or even years of travel under dangerous conditions. Pilgrims accepted hardship as a form of penance, seeking spiritual renewal, healing, or thanksgiving.

Recognizing the sacrificial nature of these journeys, popes and bishops increasingly attached indulgences to visits to designated holy sites.

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Cathedral Building and Acts of Charity

The medieval Church also encouraged the faithful to support works that benefited the Christian community.

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, indulgences were granted for:

• contributing to the construction of churches,
• supporting hospitals,
• caring for the poor,
• assisting monasteries,
• repairing bridges and roads used by pilgrims,
• and funding charitable institutions.

These indulgences were intended to encourage generosity and public works that served both the Church and society.

It is important to note that the indulgence was never understood as a reward for giving money itself. Rather, the charitable act, performed with sincere faith and repentance, formed part of the broader work of penance.

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The Rise of Partial Indulgences

As canonical penances became less common in their original form, the Church began expressing indulgences in terms of the ancient penitential system.

For example, an indulgence might remit:

• forty days,
• one year,
• three years,
• seven years,
• or even longer periods of canonical penance.

These figures did not refer to time in purgatory.

Instead, they indicated the equivalent value of the public penance that would once have been imposed in the early Church.

This distinction was often misunderstood by later generations, giving rise to the mistaken belief that indulgences reduced a fixed number of years in purgatory.

Modern Catholic teaching no longer uses these numerical designations.

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The Treasury of the Church

As indulgences became more widespread, theologians sought to explain their theological basis more precisely.

Central to this effort was the concept known as the Treasury of the Church.

The treasury consists principally of:

• the infinite merits of Christ,
• united with the prayers and merits of the Blessed Virgin Mary,
• and the witness and holiness of the saints.

Because Christ’s saving work is infinitely sufficient, the Church teaches that His merits can be applied pastorally through the ministry entrusted to the Church.

The saints contribute not by adding to Christ’s redemption but by sharing in His grace through their faithful lives.

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Scholastic Theology and the Clarification of Doctrine

The rise of medieval universities gave birth to Scholasticism, a method of theological inquiry that sought to harmonize faith and reason.

Among the theologians who contributed to the understanding of indulgences were:

• Peter Lombard,
• Saint Bonaventure,
• Saint Albert the Great,
• and especially Saint Thomas Aquinas.

Saint Thomas Aquinas

In his Summa Theologiae, Aquinas explained that indulgences derive their efficacy entirely from Christ’s merits.

He argued that:

• the Church possesses authority to dispense spiritual goods,
• indulgences presuppose genuine repentance,
• they cannot forgive guilt,
• they apply only to temporal punishment,
• and they benefit the faithful through the Communion of Saints.

Aquinas rejected any magical or mechanical understanding of indulgences. They always required a properly disposed recipient.

His synthesis became foundational for later Catholic teaching.

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The Franciscan Contribution

The Franciscan movement emphasized God’s mercy and the call to conversion.

One of the most beloved indulgences arose through the tradition associated with Saint Francis of Assisi.

According to Franciscan tradition, in 1216 Christ granted Francis’ request that all who visited the little chapel of Portiuncula, fulfilled the required spiritual conditions, and sincerely repented might receive a plenary indulgence.

Known as the Portiuncula Indulgence or Pardon of Assisi, it emphasized God’s mercy rather than extraordinary acts of penance.

This indulgence remains one of the most cherished in the Catholic Church.

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Marian and Saintly Shrines

As devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary and the saints expanded, indulgences became associated with many important pilgrimage sites.

These included visits to:

• Marian shrines,
• basilicas,
• apostolic tombs,
• relics of saints,
• and churches designated by the Holy See.

Such indulgences encouraged pilgrimage, prayer, sacramental confession, and renewed Christian living.

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The Papacy and the Expansion of Indulgences

Between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, the papacy assumed an increasingly central role in granting indulgences.

Popes authorized indulgences for:

• jubilees,
• pilgrimages,
• charitable works,
• missionary efforts,
• hospitals,
• churches,
• confraternities,
• and major liturgical celebrations.

The first Holy Year, proclaimed by Pope Boniface VIII in 1300, included a plenary indulgence for pilgrims who visited the principal basilicas of Rome under prescribed conditions.

This Jubilee tradition continues today.

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The Emergence of Problems

Despite their spiritual purpose, indulgences gradually became vulnerable to misuse.

Several factors contributed:

• increasing complexity of canonical law,
• inadequate catechesis,
• exaggerated preaching,
• political pressures,
• financial needs of dioceses and religious institutions,
• and popular misunderstandings.

Some preachers described indulgences in exaggerated language that obscured the need for sincere repentance and sacramental confession.

In some regions, financial contributions became too closely associated with indulgence campaigns, even though the Church consistently taught that forgiveness and grace could never be bought.

These abuses varied widely across Europe and were not universal, but they damaged public confidence and prepared the ground for later controversy.

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Toward the Eve of the Reformation

By the fifteenth century, indulgences were firmly established within Catholic devotional life.

They accompanied:

• pilgrimages,
• jubilees,
• charitable works,
• church dedications,
• confraternities,
• and many devotional practices.

At the same time, the gap between official teaching and popular understanding had widened in some places. While theologians continued to emphasize repentance, confession, and conversion, popular preaching sometimes reduced indulgences to simplistic formulas.

This growing disconnect would become one of the central issues leading to the Protestant Reformation in the early sixteenth century.

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Conclusion

The High Middle Ages witnessed the full flowering of the doctrine of indulgences. Guided by Scripture, tradition, and theological reflection, the Church developed a coherent understanding of indulgences as a pastoral application of Christ’s merits for the remission of temporal punishment due to forgiven sins.

Great theologians such as Saint Thomas Aquinas clarified their doctrinal foundations, while movements like the Franciscans highlighted God’s mercy through beloved practices such as the Portiuncula Indulgence. Pilgrimages, jubilees, and charitable works became occasions for spiritual renewal, drawing countless faithful into deeper conversion.

Yet this same period also revealed the dangers of inadequate catechesis and imprudent administration. Popular misunderstandings and local abuses gradually obscured the Church’s authentic teaching, setting the stage for one of the most significant religious crises in Christian history.

In Part III, we will explore the indulgence controversy that contributed to the Protestant Reformation, examine the criticisms raised by Martin Luther, and study how the Council of Trent reformed the practice of indulgences while reaffirming their theological legitimacy.